Proverbs and their functions

The beginning of paroemiography dates back to the 16th century when in 1515 Erasmus of Rotterdam published his first collection of proverbs and proverbial sayings. Since that time people have been interested in all kinds of proverbial locutions because, as Jerzy Glusky states quoting the English philosopher Francis Bacon, 'The genius, wit, and spirit of a nation are discovered in its proverbs' (1971: 4).

One of the most effective indicators of proverbiality is metaphor. The sudden shift in topic that disrupts the normal conversational flow and signals by its 'out-of-context' quality that the statement in question is to be interpreted figuratively and not literally leads to its identification as a proverb. Most proverbs are inherently metaphorical in meaning, however, in some instances the proverb is simply a statement that becomes metaphorical only within a context that rules out a literal interpretation.

Proverb research was in a relatively poor state not so long ago. Scholars and writers claimed that proverbial language had passed from usage in contemporary culture. It seemed to be true that 'The proverb and related forms have long been objects of general interest and the occasion for many books, but they have attracted little serious and thorough study' (Taylor, 1931: vii).

Are people interested in proverbs nowadays? It can be easily proved that they are. Proverbs are not dead, they have not lost their well-established popularity and they continue to be present in all spheres of life.

How do people perceive proverbs today? According to Shirley L. Arora '...the most consistently accepted generalization concerning proverbs, in virtually any language, is that they are "traditional", and that is their traditionality - - the sense of historically-derived authority or of community-sanctioned wisdom that they convey- -that makes them "work" ' (Arora, 1995). However, it would be a mistake to assume that all proverbs in circulation at present time must, by definition, be old bits of wisdom. According to Wolfgang Mieder ' the time of proverb creation is by no means over ' (1993: ix). While we continue to use many of the proverbs that can be traced back to classical times, the wisdom literature of the Jewish and Christian tradition, or the widely disseminated vernacular wisdom of the Middle Ages, we must not forget that the proverbs have been created at all times. This is also true for a modern society characterised by technology, mass culture and rapid urbanisation.

Proverbs and proverbial sayings, with their universal value and appeal, the truths they embody and the messages they carry, have for centuries been equally popular with all nations, despite their regional diversities and, clearly, for the impact they have made. Their brevity, the teaching they give, which ranges from general truths of advice, warning and comments they offer on human experience, encourage each of us to act and behave in certain ways. It is not surprising, then, that through the ages proverbs which have prevailed and contributed significantly to the English language still form a living part of it and thus can enrich our everyday conversations. They make the language a more vivid and powerful tool of communication. A response receives an additional weight when we don't speak merely with our own mouths and we don't use our individual expression of state of mind, but a general opinion.

Although many scholars and writers believe that proverbs and proverbial expressions have ceased to be used in modern world culture, it can be easily proved that they are still used in every domain of life. It may be claimed that they have not lost their popularity and they are continually existent in present society all over the world.

Today's proverbs are not limited to the old ones from classical times, the wisdom literature of the Jewish and Christian tradition or from the Middle Ages. They are being created all the time. There is a need because as Wolfgang Mieder says 'Even the most sophisticated and best educated people appear to be in need of the pithy wisdom contained in metaphorical proverbs' (1993: IX). Their texts can not only be interpreted literally but their metaphorical meanings may be taken to present succinct statements of evident truths. They may deride or satirise them sometimes but they are not absolute truths because they make sense only in certain contexts.

Proverbs have been, are and will always be timeless. The variety and number of proverbs and proverbial phrases is boundless. No matter how old people are, what country they come from, proverbs are part of their heritage. To the way of thinking of all proverb users, they comprise a good portion of common sense, experience, wisdom and above all truth.

While reading about proverbs one could ask why people use proverbs at all. As we know, proverbs don't usually function as mere poetic adornments of speech, neither are they used to meet man's needs for philosophic phrasemongering. As a rule they are used for some practical purposes in various circumstances of everyday communication. According to Taylor 'Men buy and read collections of proverbs to awaken and enlarge reflections on the world and the nature of man, to suggest subjects for conversation, or to provide themselves with comment appropriate to situations in daily life' (Taylor, 1996). It would not be wrong to state that proverbs are used to convey our general human problems and concerns by means of traditional language. According to Mieder 'By employing proverbs in our speech we wish to strengthen our arguments, express generalisations, influence or manipulate other people, rationalize our own shortcomings, question certain behavioral patterns, satirize social ills, poke fun at ridiculous situations' (1993: 11).

Proverbs were and are used nowadays as an effective spoken or written tool of expressing various meanings and intentions. They include wisdom, knowledge and truth which is manifested in a few colourful words. In spite of the fact the proverbs have figurative meaning, the message they carry is delivered very quickly and to the point which makes it very functional while used in spoken language, political speeches, newspaper headlines, cartoon titles and slogans in the advertisements. Proverbs can be used to manoeuvre people politically and economically and they may be very serious tool as 'expressions of stereotypical invectives or unfounded generalizations' (Mieder, 1993: X).

According to Archer Taylor 'As a guide to life's problems, the proverb summarizes a situation, passes a judgement, or offers a course of action. It is a consolation in difficulties large and small and a guide when a choice must be made. It expresses a morality suited to the common man' (Taylor, 1996). He also pointed out that collections of proverbs are read to reflect on the world and life. Proverbs are also often used to describe the characteristics of a country or its inhabitants. Passing judgements is also done by means of proverbs and because of that, they often appear in legal contexts (The cask savours of the first fill; It is a silly fish that is caught twice with the same bait).

While trying to analyse the functions of proverbs we have to concentrate on how traditional proverbs continue to be employed and function in modern world. ' Doubtlessly traditional proverbs still play a significant role in today's speech, where they continue to be used to moralize, to instruct, to advise, and to reflect on everyday occurrences' (Mieder, 1993:58). Such old well known proverbs are often used in a different new manner, they are changed in order to be suitable for modern communication.

First of all, proverbs had and still have a didactic function. By using them we wish to teach people, give them some advice, help in difficult situations, show people what are the most important things in life, show the proper way in life. Most proverbs having a didactic function originate from the Bible. In such proverbs as 'Seek and you shall find ' (Math. 7,7), 'Every man must carry his own cross' (Math. 6, 24) 'You cannot put new wine in old bottles' (Math. 9,17), 'Do as you would be done by' (Luke 6, 31), it is their didactic function which makes them very useful in church sermons and moralising speeches.

Secondly, proverbs are very often used in personal interaction. They can function as warning ('Keep your weather eye open', 'Mind your P's and Q's' ), suggestion ('Live and let live', 'It is never too late to learn'), scolding ('He that seeks trouble, never misses it', 'He struts like a peacock' ), explanation ('He who lives by the sword dies by the sword'), justification ('Too many cooks spoil the broth'), a summary or a comment ('Learn wisdom by the follies of others', 'Care killed the cat'). They also bring out the essence of a given phenomenon, warn of danger, tell people how to behave and how to not behave, advise or give direct orders and prohibitions. With the aid of proverb one can aim to provide an endorsement to his statement or opinions, forecast something, express doubts, accuse someone of something, jeer at somebody's misfortune, justify or excuse somebody. Proverbs are also used to sum up life experiences and let the listener draw conclusions by himself and apply them to his behaviour in the future.

Thirdly, proverbs are a tool by means of which we can discredit or mock someone or criticise someone or a situation. Using politeness, in a short, pithy sentence we can hide our own thoughts and say something we would not dare to say in a direct manner. By means of proverbs we can depict wide range of basic people's experiences and problems of modern life in a satirical and moralising way. We would say 'A good husband makes a good wife' if we hear a man complaining about his wife while we know it is not only her fault. In modern writings function of proverbs differs a little bit from that of traditional ones. 'While proverbs in older literature usually served didactic and moralistic purposes, they are now often employed for expressions of parody, irony, or satire' (Mieder, 1993: 71).

As we can see proverbs can perform plenty of functions. They can perform different roles as speech acts depending on the text and the type of communicative setting they are used. Proverbs can be analysed with reference to formal paradigm of discourse because they refer to language 'above the sentence'. The relevance of some proverbs is to state some information and such proverbs can be interpreted on the locutionary speech level. Others, however, can be understood only with their metaphorical meaning and such proverbs need to be analysed on the illocutionary speech level. Some proverbs may also be examined as perlocutionary acts when they produce some important consequences concerning feelings, thoughts or actions of the listeners.

The functions of proverbs are the same as the functions and subfunctions of speech acts. They express intellectual and emotional attitudes: disappointment, sympathy, intention, acceptance as well as moral attitudes: approval, disapproval, appreciation, apology or regret. Proverbs and speech acts have the socialising function and suasion. They are used to congratulate, attract attention, advise, offer, suggest, request or warn.

Speech acts or speech events may involve requests, advice or words of criticism in two ways: directly or indirectly. The indirect way of doing that can be by means of proverbs or politeness strategies.

Almost all proverbs are context - dependent (except for some biblical proverbs having a didactic function) and it is impossible to define the role of a proverb without reference to the context of its use. Language means something to someone when it is used in a certain situation. Meanings are generated by contexts and the same holds true for proverbs, as well.

Some people who are not very competent in a language may have problems with understanding proverbs as their meaning extends far beyond their literal meanings. Different dictionaries and collections of proverbs provide only texts or examples of proverbs, they inform us what proverbs exist in a language but they say nothing about how proverbs are used in various situations. Information on proverbs use and functions is found in texts because proverbs are used in contexts there. The meaning and function of a proverb usually depend on the situation in which it is used. For example, 'All's well that ends well' can be used as a statement, a justification or an explanation.

Bibliografia:
1. Arora, Shirley L. 1995. The perception of proverbiality. http://www.deproverbio.com/
2. Gluski, Jerzy. 1971. Proverbs: A Comparative Book of English, French, German, Italian, Spanish and Russian Proverbs with a Latin Appendix. New York . Elsevier Publishing Company
3. Mieder, Wolfgang. 1993. Proverbs are never out of season: Popular Wisdom in the Modern Age. Oxford. Oxford University Press
4. Taylor, Archer. 1931. The proverb. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press
5. Taylor, Archer. 1996. The History of a proverbial pattern. http://www.deproverbio.com/
6. Taylor, Archer. 1996. The Study of Proverbs. http://www.deproverbio.com/
7. Taylor, Archer. 1996. The Style of Proverbs. http://www.deproverbio.com/
8. The New Testament. The Gideons International

 

Opracowanie: Dorota Krasuska

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