„Cognitive Linguistic- protoype theory, based on Elanoar Rosh, Amos Tversky, George Lakoff, Ludwig Wittegenstein researches on categorization“

At the beginning I want to shortly explain what exactly cognitive linguistic is. This concept was initiated by American researchers (R. Langacker, G. Lakoff and M. Johnson, R. Jack-Endon).In cognitive linguistic language is understood as a reflection of the cognitive processes that occur in the mind of man, so it shall be tested as part of the structure of human cognition. From a grammatical point of view, language is a fixed inventory of linguistic units. Cognitivism, emphasizing the symbolism of language, moving away from a rigid distinction between phonetics, morphology, syntax, vocabulary. One of the most inportant work in cognitive linguistic was Elanoar Rosh`s work on categorization. She Raised the question of the relation between words and things in real world that the words can be used to refer. Futher resaerach on prototype categorization of E.Rosh declared that many categories lacked clear-cut boundaries. The first studies of E.Rosh become the basis for prototype theory in cognitive linguistc.
There were some basic assumptions of prototype theory. Firstly the membership in the category is not clear as in eg. of Wittengenstein about family similarity. Secondly copies of the categories are not the same, some items are more prototypical then others. And finally, limits of categories are not fixed in many cases can be variable for example 200 yeras ago, video games were not in the GAME category. E.Rosh concept of conception on prototype help her to differ two kinds of categorization:
- cognitive saving - the main duty of that kind of system of categorization is to provide the maximum amount of information with the smallest possible cognitive effort.
- structure of the world- perceived the world comes easier as structured information, than a collection of arbitrary or unpredictable attributes .


Supervention of correlation of certain features seems to us more likely than others, this is determined by competence and knowledge, and confirmed by the experience, for example,
supervention of „pair plumage+wings“ it seems more likely than pair „fur+wings“. In futher researchings she differed two possible dimensions of the systems category:
- vertical dimenssion- which concern level of particular category conclude:
shepherd, dog, mammal, animal, living creature.
„Not all possible levels of categorization are equally good and useful; rather, the most common level categorization, will this which is the most containing (most abstract) level at which categories can reflect the structure of the features perceived in the world. "

- horizontal dimension- subdivide category at the same level of inclusion:
dog, cat, car, chair.
To increase the distinctiveness and categories flexibility, we tend to define the category as prototypes or a prototype examples, which includes features most representative for the elements of this category and the least representative elements from out of the category.
Out of two above given dimensions, vertical dimension plays much more significant role in cognitive linguistic. It also defining two important concepts like category and taxonomy. It shows that category is the class of objects which are considered to be similar, usullay categories we are describing by names and the taxonomy which is definied as a system in which categories are associated with others by inclusion of classes. Within the taxonomy, each category is contained in more abstract (eg. Shepherd in the dog, and the dog in the animal). Relevance of belonging to a basic level of abstraction is determined probabilistically. Two main assumptions of researches on categorization was the fact that characteristics of objects in the world are perceived by us as discontinuous and that the basis for categorization divisions are discontinuity. In vertical dimmension we can also differ three levels of categorization :
- basic level- at this level are objects with features common to most of the copies of the category (maximum separation between the classes): chair,car

- superior level- is more abstract than the basic level, copies which are on this level have
only some common features: furniture, vehicles


- collatelar level- items that on this level are clusters of features belonging to each category:
kitchen chair, stool, carriage, Mercedes
How and due to what we categorize?
- motor movements- characteristics of the used object (eg. the chair) combine usual sequence of the movements , setting creates a specific motor program.

- similarity of shapes- realized experiments depend on drawing of shapes the similarity between shapes of objects from the basic category is much bigger than in the case of objects from the superior category

- recognition of average shapes.

Through the study of categorization can many logical conclusions can be derived. If it is going on ideas and perception basic objects are the richest categories or which it is possible to create a mental representation of the corresponding to copies of the class. In case of growth the basic level of category is recognized the earliest by children. When we are considering language in the moment of seeing an object, for example. „Mercedes“, people primarily assign a name for the category primary (car). In all probability, basic names are evolutionarily the oldest.
In the horizontal dimension categories are not strictly outlined by boundaries, only our cognitive economy makes perceive categories discrete. The concept of prototype is explained by the object being the most representative member of category (A. Tversky, "the prototype is an item whose sum of similarity to allother members of the category is the highest "). An example of a prototype for a bird could be pigeon, istead chicken or kiwi are less prototypical copies, but they are similar enough (on the basis of family similarity) to the prototype that they can also be considered for the birds.
Categorization researches have allowed to discover how human mind distinguish prototypes. As a first think to considration they took processing speed, when the question of membership of an object to a given category is asked, he response time is much faster in the case of prototype objects. We are also putting great attention on the rate of learning young children category belonnging much faster in case of prototype objects.


Other important thging is putting our attention on order and the likelihood of units, cited examples of superior semantic categories is correlated with assessments prototypicality. Essential information is that natural languages heave mechanisms of decoding levels prototypicality, restrictions (hedges): "almost", "properly". We use them in deciding which object is more prototypical. As a second mechanism we can enumerate substitutability in sentences, meaning is closely associated with the use of sentence. Usually without loss of meaning we can replaced in a sentence defined concept by collatelar concept for like in this exemplary sentence:
„Twenty sparrows are sitting on the roof of my house“,( sparrow can sensibly be changed into a bird, but not a turkey).
Another very important concept in the categorization is framing. This is perfectly shown in the examples of Lakoff. One of this examples was concept of word „Friday“ we can give the meaning of this word just like that even meaning „fifth day of the week“ in itself does not mean anything. „Friday" has the meaning thanks to several frameworks.
- The natural cycle of the sun ( we can understand what is a day)

- Calendar takes into account the seven days of the week (we can understand what is the "fifth day of the week").
Both frames are independent of the concept of "Friday", but they are necessary to give a significance for this word. Frames are often idealizations. - In nature there is no such thing as a 7 day of the week. Thanks to the idealization frame are dependent on culture. Many cultures did not recognize / does not recognize the framework of calendar taking into account seven days of the week. The concept can be recognized in different frames. „Friday“ acquires importance also in the frame superstitions (unlucky day) or in the frame of weekend (the first day of weekend) or in the frame of working days (last day of work).

Another important concept is profiling and perspective. Profiling involves highlighting certain elements of framework. The words "teacher", "student" profiles the frame elements of school. Sender of the statement always choose perspective which also need to be accepted by recipient. Fillmore example: (1) focus on perspective of the sea voyage, (2) focus on flight perspective:
- "Johnny spent two hours on the ground"
- "Johnny spent two hours on the ground"

Perhaps the most resonable conclusion to draw from the above is that knowing the world involve the set of human cognitive abbilities. On all of these levels of language there is relationship between form and meaning, it is proposed to treat them as individuals linguistic elements having different degrees of complexity and scheme. In cognitivism language is understood as a reflection of the cognitive processes that occur in the mind of man, so it shall be tested as part of the structure of human cognition.

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